Hoplite, heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldier whose function was to fight in close formation. Until his appearance, probably in the late 8th.
Hoplites were heavy infantry citizen-soldiers of the Ancient Greek states, whose name derives from the large distinctive round shield (hoplon) which they used in combat. Since they were expected to provide their own armour, hoplites were primarily free citizens who were able to afford such expenses.
Those wealthy enough to raise horses served in the cavalry and those with inadequate means to pay for armour served as auxiliaries, such as archers and peltasts. Although the precise date of the emergence of hoplite warfare is contentious, historians have posited a time frame between the eighth and seventh century BC.
100 doors challenge level 36. Bronze panoplyA hoplite’s usual equipment comprised a bronze helmet, a bronze or flax breastplate, bronze greaves, a large wooden and bronze shield (hoplon or aspis), a long thrusting spear (dory) and a sword (xiphos) or short knife (kopis). The Corinthian helmet which covered the entire head and neck and featured slits for the eyes and mouth, became the standardised helmet form, as attested by the artistic and archaeological evidence. Depictions of hoplites on painted pottery often show the soldier wearing the helmet tipped upwards on his head, presumably because of the discomfort caused when the helmet was worn properly.A range of variants were later developed, including the Thracian, Chalcidian and pilos types, which were lighter, more comfortable and less obscuring of vision. Often, the helmet was decorated with a horsehair crest, which both prevented blows to the head and rendered the wearer’s presence more imposing.The most important item of the hoplite’s equipment, the shield, was just under a metre in diameter. It rested on the solider’s shoulder down to his knees and was held by inserting the left arm through a central band fixed to the underside of the shield and gripping a cord or strap at the rim, which allowed the wearer more flexibility of movement and also facilitated phalanx formation, since each man’s shield protected the right side of his left hand neighbour. Shields were also often decorated with a blazon featuring the emblem of the family or city, thus immediately asserting the allegiance of the bearer.
Bronze statue of a hoplite warriorThe hoplite’s principal tactic was the phalanx formation, a strategy thought to have been developed c. The troops arranged themselves for battle shoulder to shoulder, usually eight to ten men deep and when the signal was given, they advanced, the front ranks usually stabbing at their opponents with over-arm spear thrusts. The hoplites used their shields for en-masse shoving, especially once they had clashed with the enemy line, in a technique known as othismos (“pushing forward”); Herodotus, for example, characterizes the battle at Thermopylae in 480 BC as “a great shoving” (7.225).Battles tended to be decisive and often relatively short-lived.
They required a high degree of discipline, since all members of the phalanx had to work together; there was no place for individual combat as we see in the world of the Homeric epics, but rather each man relied on his neighbour for protection and exceptional mental stamina in order to keep the phalanx in formation and face the enemy wall in front. At least in the early classical period, cavalry was used to protect the phalanx flanks, particularly the right flank which was more vulnerable due to the lack of shield coverage. Bronze Corinthian helmetIf battle was refused by the defender, the aggressors often ravaged the surrounding land until they agreed to engage in combat, as Thucydides records regarding Archidamus’ intended Spartan invasion of Attica in 431 BC, “Even if they are not already deployed pending our arrival, they will surely deploy when they see us in their territory, ravaging their land and destroying their property” (2.11). The dense wall formed by the Greek hoplite phalanx formation proved invincible at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC and the Battle of Plataea in 479, when the Greeks defeated the Persians, whose light infantry and archers were unable to penetrate the Greek shields.
Bronze Corinthian helmet with griffin crestSparta, a unique state in the Greek world at this time for a number of reasons, was perhaps one most focused on military training and warfare. Whilst the citizens of other Greek states received basic military training, the free citizens of Sparta (homoioi) served as hoplites their entire lifetime and underwent extensive military training from an early age (agoge), in peacetime as well as during periods of conflict, resulting in the development of a formidable land army. Red-figure plate depicting a crouching hopliteDespite the success of hoplite warfare, the conflict that ensued between the city-states of Greece after the Persian Wars saw its decline, and the diversification of warfare tactics and strategies. The pooled resources of the Greek states, both in terms of manpower and financial assets meant that new, more practical and economic strategies could be implemented, and there was increased reliance on skirmishes, mercenaries, siege engines and the defence and attack of city walls. Detail from a black-figure Tyrrhenian amphora attributed to the Fallow Deer Painter, Staatliche Antikensammlung, Munich.What is more, Athens’ supremacy at sea and consolidation of empire meant that the Athenians, in particular, concentrated on the development of their navy, rather than land army. Hoplites, then, begin wearing less armour, carrying shorter swords and generally adapting for a role involving greater mobility. This led to the emergence of the ekdromoi (“out-runners”), the light hoplites, whose name indicates their ability to exit the phalanx and fight in an irregular order, should circumstance dictate.
Men wear their helmets and their breastplates for their own needs, but they carry shields for the men of the entire line.
--Plutarch, Moralia
The hoplite phalanx was the perfect manifestation of classical Greek society on the battlefield. Made up of middle-class men who had day jobs, the phalanx was made to decide a war in a single bloody struggle.
Equipment
The hoplite's armor--the panoply--consisted of a shield, helmet, breastplate, greaves (plate armor worn around the lower leg), sword, spear, and tunic, and weighed about seventy pounds. All this on a soldier who himself probably weighed no more than 150 pounds.
The hoplite's shield was his defining piece of equipment, even lending its name, hoplon, to the soldier himself. It was a large concave piece of wood, rested on the left shoulder, and stretching down to the soldier's knees. The shield was large enough to protect the right side of the man to each soldier's left, and so formed a wall behind which the hoplite was protected.
The rest of the armor was made of thick bronze plate, and was so heavy that the soldiers would not don their armor until the moments before the charge began. In particular, the helmet (always the soldier's least favorite bit of equipment, then as now) was frequently tilted far back on his head when the soldier was not in combat.
The phalanx is recognized by its bristle of spears, and the spear was indeed the principal offensive weapon of the hoplite. Eight feet long, it was capped with an iron spearhead on one end, and a bronze butt-spike on the other. There is some doubt as to whether it was held underhand or above the shoulder. The butt-spike was useful as a secondary weapon for dispatching trampled-upon foes, or as a primary weapon after the spear shattered, as it usually did, upon impact. The hoplite's short sword was typically considered to be a sort of weapon of last resort.
Each hoplite was responsible for the purchase and upkeep of his own armor, and so membership in the hoplite phalanx was restricted to those who could afford the expense. The title of hoplite was thus one of some minor prestige, and carried with it some additional political rights.
Battle
Hoplites were organized in the phalanx as row upon row of men, typically about eight ranks deep, and stretching abreast for a quarter mile or more. The commanding general--the strategos--took position in the front rank, at the extreme right--the most exposed position in the entire army. Greek generals typically had short careers.
Prior to combat, the paen or battle hymn was sung, then the phalanx advanced upon its foe at a trot. The Spartan army was an exception; it saw the paen as needless bravado and was known for its slow, methodical pace, set by musician-boys who marched behind the line. The first four ranks of men marched with spears level, while the rear ranks kept their spears mostly vertical, where they provided an effective defense against missile weapons. The large shields on the left side of each soldier provided an incentive for everyone to snuggle up against the man on his right. This formed the wall of shields that was so crucial to the phalanx's effectiveness, but there was a definite trend for each army to drift noticeably to its right.
As the lines neared each other, both sides broke into a run. The challenge for the general was to maintain cohesion (and the shield wall) while still gaining enough momentum for the initial crash. When the armies did crash, among the literal rain of spear splinters as the spears shattered, the battle became a scrum of each army trying to push through the other's line. The forward ranks did what hacking and spearing they could, while the rear ranks drove the enemy forward by pressing their shields into the backs of the men in front of them. The pressure, the noise, the confusion, the gore at the front of the line were immense.
The Idea
The Greek phalanx was nearly unstoppable in its intended mode of combat: head-on, on straight, level ground, with adequate protection on the flanks. Hoplite battles frequently took place in long, straight valleys--so common in the Greek mainland--where the phalanx could occupy the entire width of the valley and thus protect its flanks and its rear. A single site would frequently be the location of battle after battle through the ages, its desirability as a battlefield undiminished.
Hoplite combat was centered around a single idea: that battle should be bloody, horrible, and decisive. This fit the needs of an agrarian society that could not spare its men to a professional army, but needed them back in time for harvest. Battles were short, and casualties were surprisingly low (proportionally to the combatants) in comparison with modern combat. Through most of their history, the ancient Greeks meant to keep wars short--even just a single battle--so that people combatuld get back to their lives. If they frequently judged war to be necessary, it was still just a necessary evil.
Sources
Most of this information comes straight out of
Victor David Hanson, The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece. University of California Press, 1989.
Also highly recommended, a novelization of the battle of Thermopylae:
Steven Pressfield, Gates of Fire. Bantam, 1999.